-*- Text -*-

$Id: cmpint.txt,v 1.14 2008/01/30 20:01:44 cph Exp $

Copyright (C) 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994,
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    2006, 2007, 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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		Documentation of the C interface to
		    MIT Scheme compiled code
			     *DRAFT*



	Remarks:

In the following, whenever Scheme is used, unless otherwise specified,
we refer to the MIT Scheme dialect and its CScheme implementation.

This file describes the compiled-code data structures and macros
defined in cmpint-md.h and required by cmpint.c and cmpgc.h .

cmpaux.txt describes the assembly language code that must be written
to get all of this to work.

cmpint-md.h is the machine dependent header file that defines many of
these parameters.  A new version must be written for each
architecture.

The "settable" fields in cmpint-md.h are described in the paragraphs
marked with "=>".

In the following, word and longword are the size of an item that fills
a processor register, typically 32 bits.  Halfword is half this size,
and byte is typically 8 bits.

	Description of compiled-code objects and relevant types:

The Scheme compiler compiles scode expressions (often procedure
definitions) into native code.  As its output, it produces Scheme
objects that represent compiled expressions.  To execute these
expressions, they are passed as arguments to scode-eval together with
an environment.

Typically these expressions will construct some pointers to compiled
procedures and define them in the environment.  These procedures can
then be invoked normally from the read-eval-print loop, from
interpreted code, or from other compiled code.

In the course of their computation, these procedures will need to
call other procedures and then proceed the computation.  In order to
accomplish this, they will push compiled return addresses on the
stack, and these will eventually be popped and "jumped through" to
return.

Compiled code and objects referenced by it are collected into
"vector-like" objects called compiled-code blocks.

The above four classes of objects (compiled expressions, compiled
procedures, compiled return addresses, and compiled-code blocks) are
implemented using two microcode types:

TC_COMPILED_CODE_BLOCK is used to implement compiled-code blocks.  It
is a vector type, that is, it is a pointer type, the word addressed by
the pointer contains the length of the vector (not including the
length header word), and the rest of the words (length) follow at
increasing addresses in memory.  Typically the first word after the
header is a non-marked-vector header, and the instructions follow it.
The non-marked-vector header covers all the instructions, but the
vector may contain arbitrary objects after the instructions, covered
only by the normal vector header.  The optional, additional space at
the end of the block is called the "constants" section, since it is
used, among other things, to keep copies of constant objects used by
the compiled code.  See the picture below for a diagram of the typical
layout.

TC_COMPILED_ENTRY is used to implement compiled expressions,
compiled return addresses, compiled procedures, and some other entry
points that the compiler and the compiled-code interface need.  A
compiled entry is a non-standard pointer type described below. 

	Description of compiled entries:

The address portion of a compiled entry object points to an
instruction in the "middle" of a compiled-code block.

In order for the garbage collector to be able to move the whole
block as a unit it must be able to determine the address of the
first word.  Note that this word contains the length of the whole
block, so this need not be specified again.

The address of the first word of the block can be found from the
address of the instruction, and a few bytes, currently a halfword
preceding the instruction.  These bytes are called the offset field of
a compiled entry object, and typically encode the distance (in bytes)
between the beginning of the block and the compiled entry.

A few bytes preceding the offset field are called the format field and
encode the type of compiled entry (procedure vs. expression, etc.) and
some type-specific information (number of arguments, offset to next
return address on the stack, etc.).

The gc-offset field and the format field must be the same size, and
their size is determined by the C typedef of format_word at the
beginning of cmpint-md.h.  Note that, to date, the compiler has only
been ported to systems where this size is 2 bytes (for each), but it
should be possible to port it to systems where these fields are
larger.

	Encoding of the offset field:

The offset field is decoded as follows:

If the low order bit is 0 the offset is a simple offset, ie.
subtracting the offset from the address of the compiled entry
results in the address of the compiled-code block that contains the
entry.

If the low order bit is 1, it is a continued offset, ie. subtracting
the offset from the address of the compiled entry results in the
address of another compiled entry whose offset may or may not have a
low bit of 0.

The rest of the bits (typically 15) are some encoding of the offset:

- If instructions can appear at arbitrary byte addresses (including
odd addresses), this field is the offset itself.

- If instructions have alignment constraints (ie. halfword alignment
on MC68K, or longword alignment on many RISCs), this field is the
offset shifted appropriately.  In this way, no bits are wasted, and
the range of offsets is increased.

For example,

The DEC VAX can have instructions at any byte location.  The 15 bits
are the offset.

The MC68020 can have instructions only at halfword boundaries.  The 15
bit field shifted left by 1 is the real offset.  Note that in this
case, if the low bit of the offset field is 0, the offset field is the
real offset.

The HP Precision Architecture, and many other RISCs, can have
instructions only at longword boundaries.  The 15 bit field shifted
left by 2 is the real offset.

	Encoding of the format field:

The preceding bytes encode the kind of compiled entry in the following
way:

The format field is further subdivided into two equal sized halves,
used, roughly, for the minimum (high order half) and maximum (low
order half) number of arguments that a compiled procedure will accept.
Inappropriate values for these numbers of arguments imply that the
entry is not a procedure, and then the two halves may be combined to
generate information appropriate to the entry type.  The examples
below assume that the format field is 2 bytes long.

- For compiled expressions it is always -1 (0xffff)

- For compiled entries it is always -3 or -2 (0xfff[d-e]).  It is -2
for compiler generated entries, -3 for compiler-interface generated
entries.

- For compiled return addresses with saved dynamic links it is always
-4 (0xfffc).  The next item on the stack is then a dynamic link.

- For the special return address `return_to_interpreter' it is
always -5 (0xfffb).

- For all other compiled return addresses, both halves (bytes) must
have their sign bit set, that is, they must appear negative when
sign-extended.  The remaining bits of the high-order half of the field
(all but the sign bit) and all but the two most significant bits of
the low-order half of the field (sign bit and adjacent bit), when
concatenated, form the offset in the stack to the previous (earlier)
return address.  This information is used by the debugger to "parse"
the stack into frames.  The sub-fields are actually concatenated
backwards, with the bits from the high order half being the low order
bits in the result.  If the format field is two bytes long, each half
is a single byte, and the valid range for the high-order half is
0x80-0xff, while the valid range for the low-order half is 0x80-0xdf

- For compiled procedures, the format field describes the arity
(number of parameters) and the format of the frame on the stack:

The high order half of the field is (1+ REQ) where REQ is the number
of required arguments.  Note that REQ must such that the resulting
half of the format field does not appear negative!  If the format
field is two bytes long, REQ must be less than 127.

The low order half of the field is given by the expression
(* (EXPT -1 REST?) FRAME-SIZE)
where FRAME-SIZE is (+ 1 REQ OPT REST?), REQ is as above, OPT
is the number of named optional arguments, and REST? is 1 if
the procedure has a rest parameter (ie. it is a "lexpr"), or 0
otherwise.  FRAME-SIZE must not appear negative, thus if the format
field is two bytes long, FRAME-SIZE must be less than 127.

	Picture of typical compiled-code block and entry:
						   
		  ----------------------------------------	     
  start_address	  | MANIFEST-VECTOR |		      tl |	     
		  ----------------------------------------<---------\
		  | NM-HEADER	    |		      il |	     \
		  ----------------------------------------<---\	      |
		  |					 |     \      |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |	     some instructions		 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  ----------------------------------------	|     |
		  |   format_field_1 |	offset_field_1	 |	|     |
		  ----------------------------------------	|     |
  entry_address_1 |	      movel arg0,reg0		 |	|     |
		  ----------------------------------------	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |					 |	 > il |
		  |					 |	|     |
		  |	      more instructions		 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  ----------------------------------------	|      > tl
		  |   format_field_2 |	offset_field_2	 |	|     |	   
		  ----------------------------------------	|     |	   
  entry_address_2 |	andl pointer_mask,arg0,reg0	 |	|     |	   
		  ----------------------------------------	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |	      more instructions		 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |	|     |	   
		  |					 |     /      |	   
	     /--->----------------------------------------<---/	      |	   
	    /	  |	      Scheme object		 |	      |
	   |	  ----------------------------------------	      |
  "cons-   |	  |					 |	      |
   tants"  |	  |					 |	      |	
	   |	  |					 |	      |	
	  <	  |					 |	      |	
	   |	  |	   more Scheme objects		 |	      | 
  section  |	  |					 |	      |
	   |	  |					 |	      |
	   |	  |					 |	      |
	    \	  |					 |	      /
	     \--->----------------------------------------<----------/

Note: The picture above assumes that each machine instruction takes the same
space as a scheme object, and that this is also the combined length of
the gc-offset and format fields.  The type tags are always at the most
significant end of the word, which depending on endianness may be at
the lowest or highest addressed part of the word in memory.  The
picture above depicts them on the left.
		   
	Description of picture:

[TC_COMPILED_CODE_BLOCK | start_address] would be the object
representing the compiled-code block.

[TC_COMPILED_ENTRY | entry_address_1] would represent entry1.

[TC_COMPILED_ENTRY | entry_address_2] would represent entry2.

1) Assuming that instructions are longword aligned and that
entry_address_1 is close enough to start_address not to need an
extension, but entry_address_2 is not, then

offset_field_1 = ((entry_address_1 - start_address) >> 1)
offset_field_2 = (((entry_address_2 - entry_address_1) >> 1) | 1)

note that entry_address_1 - start_address is a multiple of 4 because
of the alignment assumption.

2) Assuming that instructions are halfword aligned and that
entry_address_1 is close enough to start_address not to need an
extension, but entry_address_2 is not, then

offset_field_1 = (entry_address_1 - start_address)
offset_field_2 = ((entry_address_2 - entry_address_1) | 1)

note that entry_address_1 - start_address is a multiple of 2 because
of the alignment assumption.

3) Assuming that instructions are byte aligned and that
entry_address_1 is close enough to start_address not to need an
extension, but entry_address_2 is not, then

offset_field_1 = ((entry_address_1 - start_address) << 1)
offset_field_2 = (((entry_address_2 - entry_address_1) << 1) | 1)

The length of the "constants" section is (tl - il).
There are (tl + 1) total words in the object.

=> Macro PC_ZERO_BITS should be defined to be the number of bits in
instruction addresses that are always 0 (0 if no alignment
constraints, 1 if halfword, etc.).

=> format_word should be 'typedefd' to be the size of the descriptor
fields.  It is assumed that the offset field and the format field are
the same size.  This definition is unlikely to need modification.

	Compiled closures:

Most compiled procedures are represented as a simple compiled entry
pointing to the compiled-code block generated by the compiler.

Some procedures, called closures, have free variables whose locations
cannot be determined statically by the compiler or the linker.  The
compiler will generate code to construct a tiny compiled-code block on
the fly and make the compiled procedure be an entry point pointing to
this dynamically allocated compiled-code block.

For example, consider the following code, appearing at top level,

    (define foo
      (lambda (x)
	(lambda (y) (+ x y))))		;lambda-1

The outer LAMBDA will be represented as a compiled entry pointing to
the appropriate block.  The inner LAMBDA cannot be since there may be
more than one instance, each with its independent value for X:

    (define foo1 (foo 1))
    (define foo2 (foo 2))

Compiled closures are implemented in the following way: The entry
corresponding to the procedure points to a jump-to-subroutine (or
branch-and-link) instruction.  The target of this jump is the code
corresponding to the body of the procedure.  This code resides in the
compiled-code block that the compiler generated.  The free variables
follow the jump-to-subroutine instruction (after aligning to longword).

Using this representation, the caller need not know whether it is
invoking a "normal" compiled procedure or a compiled closure.  When
the closure is invoked normally, it jumps to the real code for the
procedure, after leaving a "return address" into the closure object in
a standard place (stack or link register).  This "return address" is
the address of the free variables of the procedure, so the code can
reference them by using indirect loads through the "return address".

Here is a stylized picture of the situation, where the procedure
object (closure entry point) is a pointer to <1>.

closure object:
	+-------------------------------+
	|				|
	|    <header>			|
	|				|
	+-------------------------------+
<1>	|    jsr instruction to <2>	|
	+-------------------------------+
	|    <value of X>		|
	+-------------------------------+

compiled code blok produced by the compiler:

	+-------------------------------+
	|				|
	|    ...			|
	|				|
	+-------------------------------+
<2>	|    <code for inner lambda>	|
	|		|		|
	|    		V		|
	|				|
	+-------------------------------+

The code above could be compiled as (in pseudo-assembly language, in
which & denotes an immediate value):

	const	format-word:0x0202;gc-offset:??
foo:	
	mov	rfree,reg0
	mov	&[TC_MANIFEST_CLOSURE | 4],reg1	; gc header
	mov	reg1,0(reg0)
	mov	&[format_field | offset_field],reg1	; entry descriptor
	mov	reg1,NEXT_WORD(reg0)
	mov	&[JSR absolute opcode],reg1	; jsr absolute opcode/prefix
	mov	reg1,2*NEXT_WORD(reg0)
	mova	lambda-1,reg1			; entry point
	mov	reg1,3*NEXT_WORD(reg0)
	mov	arg1,4*NEXT_WORD(reg0)		; x
	mov	&5*NEXT_WORD,reg1
	add	reg0,reg1,rfree
	mov	&[TC_COMPILED_ENTRY | 2*NEXT_WORD],reg1
	add	reg0,reg1,retval
	ret

	const	format-word:0xfffe;gc-offset:??
lambda-1:
	mov	arg1,reg0			; y
	mov	x_offset(retlnk),reg1		; x	x_offset = 0
	add	reg1,reg0,reg0
	mov	reg0,retval
	ret

A more detailed picture of the closure object would be:

	----------------------------------------
	| MANIFEST-CLOSURE |                 4 |
	----------------------------------------
	|   format_field   |  gc_offset_field  |	;format = 0x0202
	----------------------------------------	;offset = encode(8)
entry	|   JSR absolute opcode                |
	----------------------------------------
	|   address of lambda-1                |
	----------------------------------------	;address of retadd
retadd	|   value of x                         |	; -> retlnk before
	----------------------------------------	; entering lambda-1

The following macros are used to manipulate closure objects:

=> COMPILED_CLOSURE_ENTRY_SIZE specifies the size of a compiled
closure entry (there may be many in a single compiled closure block)
in bytes.  In the example above this would be 12 bytes (4 total for
the format and gc offset fields, 4 for JSR opcode, and 4 for the
address of the real entry point).

=> EXTRACT_CLOSURE_ENTRY_ADDRESS is used to extract the real address
of the entry point from a closure object when given the address of the
closure entry.  Note that the real entry point may be smeared out over
multiple instructions.  In the example above, given the address the
word labeled ENTRY, it would extract the address of LAMBDA-1.

=> STORE_CLOSURE_ENTRY_ADDRESS is the inverse of
EXTRACT_CLOSURE_ENTRY_ADDRESS.  That is, given the address of a
closure entry point, and a real entry point, it stores the real entry
point in the closure object.  In the example above, given the address
of the word labeled ENTRY, and a different entry point, say for
LAMBDA-2, it would make the closure jump to LAMBDA-2 instead. This is
used to relocate closures after garbage collection and similar
processes.

	Some caveats:

- The code for lambda-1 described above does not match what the compiler
would currently generate.

The current parameter-passing convention specifies that all the state
needed to continue the computation at a procedure's entry point must
be on the stack and all the information on the stack must be valid
objects (for GC correctness in case of interrupt, more on this below).
Thus the contents of retlnk must be pushed on the stack as a valid
object, and this is done by reconstructing the closure object whose
datum field encodes the address of entry and whose type tag is
TC_COMPILED_ENTRY, and then pushing it onto the stack.  Note that on
some machines, the return address for the subroutine-call instruction
is pushed on the stack by the hardware, and thus this value might have
to be popped, adjusted, and re-pushed if it cannot be adjusted in
place.

The code for lambda-1 would then be closer to:

lambda-1:
	sub	retlnk,&retadd-entry,retlnk
	or	&[TC_COMPILED_ENTRY | 0],retlnk,retlnk ; set type code
	push	retlnk
	<interrupt check>				; more on this below
	mov	arg1,reg0
	mov	top_of_stack,reg1
	and	&[0 | -1],reg1,reg1			; remove type code
	mov	x_offset+retadd-entry(reg1),reg1
	add	reg1,reg0,retval
	pop						; the closure object
	ret

Note that (retadd-entry) is a constant known at compile time, and is the
same for the first entry point of all closures.  On many machines, the
combination sub/or can be obtained with a single add instruction:
	add	&([TC_COMPILED_ENTRY | 0]-(retadd-entry)),retlnk,retlnk

This value is called the "magic constant", encoded in the first few
instructions of a closure's code.

- Multiple closures sharing free variables can share storage by having
multiple entry points (multiple JSR instructions) in the closure
object.  The compiler occasionally merges multiple related closures
into single objects.

A complication arises when closure entry points are not necessarily
long-word aligned, since the compiler expects all variable offsets
(like x_offset above) to be long-word offsets.

This problem only occurs on machines where instructions are not all
long-word aligned and for closures with multiple entry points, since
the first entry point is guaranteed to be aligned on a long-word
boundary on all machines.

The current solution to this problem, on those machines on which it is
a problem, is to choose a canonical entry point (the first one)
guaranteed to be aligned properly, and push that on the stack on entry
to a closure's code.  The compiler keeps track of what actual entry
point the code belongs to even though the value on the stack may
correspond to a different entry point.

The "magic constant" becomes an entry-point dependent value, since each
return address may have to be bumped back to the first entry point in
the closure object rather than to the immediately preceding entry point.

	Interrupts:

Scheme polls for interrupts.  That is, interrupt processing is divided
into two stages:

- When an asynchronous interrupt arrives, the handler (written in C)
invoked by the operating system sets a bit in a pending-interrupts
mask, stores the relevant information (if any) in a queue, and
proceeds the computation where it was interrupted.

- The interpreter and compiled code periodically check whether an
interrupt is pending and if so, invoke an interrupt handler written in
Scheme to process the interrupt.  The interpreter checks for
interrupts at the apply point.  Compiled code currently checks at
every procedure entry (including loops) and at every continuation
invocation.  This may change in the future, although it will always be
the case that interrupts will be checked at least once in each
iteration of a loop or recursion.

Compiled code does not actually check the bits in the mask to
determine whether an interrupt is pending.  It assumes that the
first-level interrupt handler (the handler written in C) not only sets
the bits, but also changes the copy of the MemTop (top of consing
area) pointer used by the compiler so that it will appear that we have
run out of consing room.  Thus compiled code merely checks whether the
Free pointer (pointer into the heap) is numerically larger than the
MemTop pointer, and if so it invokes an assembly-language or C utility
that decides whether a garbage collection is needed or an interrupt
must be processed.  Sometimes this utility will decide that the
interrupt need not be processed (it is disabled, for example), and
will need to return to the compiled code skipping the interrupt check
since otherwise we will get into an infinite loop.

The interrupt check code is fixed (so that the handler can determine
how much code to skip) and comes in two varieties: closure interrupt
code, and normal-entry (other) interrupt code.  Normal-entry interrupt
code is always the first code in an entry point (procedure or
continuation, but not closure code) and merely compares the Free and
MemTop pointers and branches.  Closure code does this comparison after
setting up the closure object.  Closure code assumes that the closure
object is in the first parameter location (the closure itself is
argument 0) so that free variables can be fetched.  Thus a closure
label must first set this up correctly, and then check for interrupts.

In pseudo-assembly language, a "normal" entry might look like

gc_or_int	LOADI	#interrupt-handler-index,rindex
		LOADA	entry,rentry
		JMP	scheme-to-interface
		format word and gc word for the entry
entry		CMP	Free,MemTop
		BGE	gc_or_int
after_entry	<actual code for the entry>

a "closure" entry might look like (this is not in the closure object,
but in the code block at which the closure object points)

gc_or_int	LOADI	#interrupt-handler-index,rindex
		LOADA	entry,rentry
		JMP	scheme-to-interface
		format word and gc word for the entry
entry		ADDI	offset,retadd,ret_add	; bump ret. add. to entry point
		ORI	#[TC_CLOSURE | 0],ret_add
		PUSH	ret_add			; arguments on the stack
		CMP	Free,MemTop
		BGE	gc_or_int
after_entry	<actual code for the entry>

The following macros are used by the C utility and handler to
determine how much code to skip:

=> ENTRY_SKIPPED_CHECK_OFFSET is the number of bytes between
entry and after_entry in a normal entry.

=> CLOSURE_SKIPPED_CHECK_OFFSET is the number of bytes
between entry and after_entry in a closure entry.

=> ENTRY_PREFIX_LENGTH is the number of bytes between gc_or_int and
entry in a normal entry, not counting those taken up by the format
word and the gc word.

	Important considerations:

The Scheme compiled code register set includes the current copy of the
Free pointer, but does not include the copy of MemTop, although it is
mostly constant.  The reason is that the C-level interrupt handler
does not have convenient access to the register set at the point of
the interrupt, and thus would have a hard time changing the version of
MemTop used by compiled code at the point of the interrupt.  Thus the
copy of MemTop used by compiled code is kept in memory.

On machines where register-to-memory comparisons can be done directly
this is no problem, but on load/store architectures (most RISCs for
example), this is not feasible.  Furthermore, most RISCs have a few
cycles of delay for memory loads, and adjacent instructions may not be
interlocked by the hardware.  Thus a sequence like

	LOAD	Memory_MemTop,Rtemp
	CMP	Rfree,Rtemp
	BGE	gc_or_int

may be very slow and NOPs may have to be inserted explicitly between
the LOAD and CMP instructions to make the code work.

Since Scheme's interrupt response is not immediate, and polling is
frequent, the following sequence can be used instead:

	CMP	Rfree,Rmemtop
	BGE	gc_or_int
	LOAD	Memory_MemTop,Rmemtop

Where Rmemtop is a register that holds a recent value of MemTop and is
reloaded at every interrupt check.  Thus interrupt processing will
start at the second interrupt check after the actual interrupt comes
in.  In other words, if the sequence of entry points executed
dynamically is ep1, ep2, ep3, and an asynchronous interrupt occurs
between ep1 and ep2, the interrupt handler will not be invoked until
ep3, rather than ep2.

This instruction sequence eliminates the need to wait for the LOAD to
complete, and the LOAD will have completed (or will be handled by the
hardware's interlock mechanism) by the next check since at least one
instruction (a branch instruction), and often many more, will
intervene.

Note that this delayed checking does not affect garbage collection
interruptions since MemTop is constant between garbage collections,
and thus the value being loaded is always the same, in the absence of
asynchronous interrupts.

Various operating systems allow the signal handler convenient access
to the interrupted code's register set.  In such a situation, the LOAD
instruction can be eliminated and the C-level interrupt handler can
modify Rmemtop directly.  Rmemtop should be chosen from the
caller-saves convention (super-temporary) registers if possible, since
these registers must be explicitly saved by the signal handler, rather
than implicitly by the calling convention.

	Interrupts and closures that share storage:

If an interrupt arrives on entry to the closure, the correct closure
object must be reconstructed so that the computation will continue
correctly on return from the interrupt.  The code to reconstruct the
correct closure is also issued by the compiler, which at compile time
maintains the identity of each closure and the distance to the
canonical closure used for environment purposes.

If the interrupt is dismissed, instead of processed, we need to
continue the computation bypassing the interrupt checking code in
order to avoid an infinite loop.  This is what the macro
CLOSURE_SKIPPED_CHECK_OFFSET is used for.  We must skip the preamble
of the closure code and emulate part of it, that is, adjust the object
on top of the stack to be the closure object that the code expects to
have there.  This can be done by extracting the magic constant from
the entry point, and bumping the corresponding return address by this
value.  The macro ADJUST_CLOSURE_AT_CALL accomplishes this feat on
those machines where it is needed.

=> ADJUST_CLOSURE_AT_CALL, when given an entry point and a location,
adjusts the closure object stored at location so that it is the
closure object that the entry point expects on top of the stack.  On
machines where all instructions are long-word aligned, it is a NOP, on
other machines (eg. 68k, VAX), it extracts the magic constant from the
closure's code, and uses it to construct the appropriate closure
object.

	External calls from compiled code:

Many calls in scheme code (and particularly in large programs) are
calls to independently compiled procedures or procedures appearing at
the top level of a file.  All these calls are calls to potentially
unknown procedures since the names to which they are bound can be
unbound or redefined dynamically at run time.  

The code issued by the compiler for such an external call must take
into account the possibility of the lack of a valid value, run-time
definition, and run-time assignment.  This is done as follows:

For each external procedure called with a fixed number of arguments
(more on this below), a small contiguous space is allocated in the
"constants" section of the compiled-code block.

This space initially contains the name of the external variable
whose value is being invoked, and the number of arguments (+ 1 for
technical reasons) being passed to the procedure.

These locations will be replaced at load time by an absolute jump to
the correct entry point of the called procedure if the number of
arguments matches and the callee (target procedure) is compiled, or by
an absolute jump to some utility code generated on the fly to
interface the caller and the callee (called a trampoline procedure).
Note that both procedures need not be in the same compiled-code block.

The fixed code in the code section of the compiled-code block contains
a pc-relative branch instruction to this space allocated in the
"constants" section.

When the compiled-code block is loaded, a linker that resolves these
references and replaces the name and arguments with machine-specific
code to do the absolute jump is invoked.  The linker also records the
locations of all such jump instructions so that a subsequent
redefinition or assigment of the same name will cause the jump
instruction to be replaced by a new one to the correct value.  Note
that the number of arguments needs to be checked only by the linker,
so no instructions are issued to check it at run time.  It is for this
reason that the number of arguments is part of the information left by
the compiler in the "constants" section.

These entries in the "constants" section are called execute caches,
operator links, or "UUO" links for historical reasons.  They must be
large enough to contain the instructions required for an absolute jump
(and possibly some delay slot instructions in a RISC-style machine),
and the number of arguments passed in the call.  This number of
arguments is not used in the call sequence, but is used by the linker
when initially linking and when relinking.

Execute caches are contiguous in the "constants" section, and the
whole lot is preceded by a GC header of type TC_LINKAGE_SECTION which
contains two fields.  The least-significant halfword of the header
contains the size in longwords of the execute-cache section (note that
each cache entry may take up more than one longword).  The remaining
bits (ignoring the type code) MUST be 0.  If a file makes enough
external calls that this halfword field cannot hold the size, the
links caches must be separated into multiple blocks each with its own
header.

Occasionally a procedure is called with more than one number of
arguments within the same file.  For example, the LIST procedure may
be called with three and seven arguments in the same file.  In this
case there would be two execute caches for LIST.  One would correspond
to the argument count of three, and the other to seven.

As an example, consider the code generated for

(sort <some list> <some predicate>)

where sort is the "global" procedure sort.

The code section would contain
	
	<compute some predicate>
	push	<some predicate>
	<compute some list>
	push	<some list>
	branch	sort-uuo-link

In the constants section there would be a label that would contain the
following after linking
	
sort-uuo-link:
	jump	sort		; Absolute address for sort
	3			; Number of arguments + 1

Before linking it would contain

sort-uuo-link:
	SORT			; The symbol SORT
	3			; Number of arguments + 1

This assumes that the absolute jump instruction takes one word.  If it
takes more, the appropriate padding would have to be inserted between
the symbol SORT and the number 3.  On machines where instructions are
not necessarily longword aligned (MC68020 and VAX, for example), the
padding bits for the instruction can be used to contain the argument
count.  Note that the order of the instructions and the count are
machine dependent, although typically the instructions precede the
count.

The following macros are used to manipulate execute caches:

=> EXECUTE_CACHE_ENTRY_SIZE specifies the length (in longwords) of an
execute-cache entry.  This includes the size of the instructions and
the argument count.  For the example above it would be 3, assuming
that the jump instruction and the absolute address take two words
together (the third is for the argument count).  Note that on RISC
machines, this size may have to include the size of the branch delay
slot instruction.

=> EXTRACT_EXECUTE_CACHE_ARITY specifies how to read the argument
count from an execute-cache entry when given the address of the entry.
In the above example, it would extract 3 from the address labeled
sort-uuo-link.

=> EXTRACT_EXECUTE_CACHE_SYMBOL specifies how to read the symbol from
an execute-cache entry (before it is actually linked) when given the
address of an entry.  In the above example, it would extract the
symbol SORT from sort-uuo-link.

=> EXTRACT_EXECUTE_CACHE_ADDRESS fetches the real entry point stored
in an execute-cache entry when given the address of the entry.  In the
above example, it would extract the entry point of the sort procedure
when given the address of the jump instruction (labeled as
sort-uuo-link).

=> STORE_EXECUTE_CACHE_ADDRESS is the inverse of this, ie. when given a
target entry point and the address of an execute cache entry, it
stores the entry point there.  In the above example, given a new entry
point for sort, and sort-uuo-link, it would modify the jump
instruction to jump to the new location.

=> STORE_EXECUTE_CACHE_CODE stores the fixed instructions (opcodes),
if any, in an execute cache cell.  If the opcodes depend on the actual
target address, this macro should be a NOP, and all the work should be
done by STORE_EXECUTE_CACHE_ADDRESS.  These two macros are separated
to avoid extra work at garbage collection time on architectures where
some or all of the code need not change.  In the example above, this
macro would store the jump opcode.


	Trampolines:

Trampolines are the linker-generated procedures that interface the
caller and the callee when they are not directly compatible.  They may
not be directly compatible because the callee may not exist, may not
be a compiled procedure, or may expect arguments in different
locations.  Trampolines typically call a C or assembly-language
procedure to reformat the argument list or invoke the error handler.
C procedures are invoked using the scheme_to_interface (and
trampoline_to_interface) code described below.

A trampoline is similar to a compiled closure in that it is a small
compiled-code block with some additional storage needed by the
trampoline handler (like the actual procedure being invoked, the
variable that is unbound, or the number of arguments being passed).
The code typically invokes an out-of-line handler passing it the
address of the storage section, and an index into a table of C or
assembly language procedures that handle the actual transfer.

A typical trampoline looks like

	----------------------------------------
block	| MANIFEST-VECTOR  |                 6 | (4 + words of storage)
	----------------------------------------
	| NM-HEADER        |                 3 | (fixed)
	----------------------------------------
	|   format_field   |    offset_field   | (fixed)
	----------------------------------------
entry	|   LOADI   #index,rindex              | (index varies)
	----------------------------------------
	|   JSR     trampoline_to_interface    | (fixed)
	----------------------------------------
retadd	|   first word of storage              | (variable)
	----------------------------------------
	|   second word of storage             | (variable)
	----------------------------------------

=> TRAMPOLINE_ENTRY_SIZE is the size in longwords of the compiled-code
portion of a trampoline.  It is similar to COMPILED_CLOSURE_ENTRY_SIZE
but in longwords, and will typically represent less storage since an
absolute address is not needed (or desirable).  It must include the
format word and the GC offset for the entry.  In the example above it
would be 3.  Note that it must be an integer number of longwords, so the
code should be padded if necessary.

=> TRAMPOLINE_ENTRY_POINT returns the address of the entry point of a
trampoline when given the address of a trampoline's block, i.e. the
address of the word that will contain the manifest vector header.  In
the picture above, when given the address of the byte labeled `block',
it will return the address of the byte labeled `entry'.

=> TRAMPOLINE_STORAGE returns the address of the first storage word in
a trampoline when given the addres of the first instruction (the entry
point of the trampoline).  In the picture above it would return the
address of the word labeled `retadd' when given the address of the
word labeled `entry'.

Most versions of cmpint-md.h define the last two macros in the same
way, in terms of TRAMPOLINE_BLOCK_TO_ENTRY, which is used only for
this purpose.  The definitions that use TRAMPOLINE_BLOCK_TO_ENTRY
assume that the first instruction of a trampoline is aligned on a
longword boundary.  If this is the case, you can define
TRAMPOLINE_BLOCK_TO_ENTRY appropriately and use the definitions of
TRAMPOLINE_ENTRY_POINT and TRAMPOLINE_STORAGE from another machine.
TRAMPOLINE_BLOCK_TO_ENTRY is the number of longwords from the start
of a trampoline's block (the manifest vector header in the picture
above), to the first instruction, which must be longword aligned.
This will typically be 3 since there are two scheme header words, and
the gc and format word typically take one longword together.

=> STORE_TRAMPOLINE_ENTRY stores the "compiled" code into an "empty"
trampoline.  It is given the address of the entry point, and the index
of the C procedure to invoke (they are all in a table), and stores the
machine code necessary to invoke scheme_to_interface (or
trampoline_to_interface), passing the index and the address of the
trampoline storage area as parameters.  In the example above this
macro would store the LOADI (load immediate) and JSR instructions.

	Compiled code and processor caches:
	
Many modern computers have processor caches that speed up the average
memory reference if the code exhibits sufficient locality in its
reference patterns.  In order to obtain increased performance at a
lower cost, many processors have split caches for instructions and
data that are not guaranteed to be consistent, ie. they are not
necessarily invisible to the programmer.

This presents problems for self-modifying code and for dynamic loaders
and linkers, since instructions are stored using data references (and
therefore the data cache), but the instruction cache may not reflect
the updates.  Modern hardware with split caches often provides some
way to synchronize both caches so that the operating system can
guarantee correct operation of newly-loaded programs.

The Scheme compiled code support performs some of the same tasks that
operating systems do, and therefore runs into these problems.

The ways in which the consistency problem arises in the Scheme system
are:

- Newly allocated instructions.  The compiler can be invoked
dynamically, compiled code can be loaded dynamically into freshly
allocated storage, and compiled closures are created dynamically.  The
instruction cache must reflect the changes made to memory through the
data cache.  The operating system's program loader must solve
precisely this problem.

- Execute caches may change their contents.  Execute caches contain
jump instructions to the appropriate code, but these instructions may
change when the corresponding variables are assigned.  If the
instruction cache is not updated, the wrong code may be entered on
subsequent calls.  Operating systems with dynamic linking must solve
this problem as well.

- Code is moved by the garbage collector, since code space is not
separate from data space and static.  If the caches are not
synchronized after a garbage collection, subsequent instruction
fetches may result in the execution of incorrect instructions.
The operating system must solve this problem when it re-allocates
virtual memory pages.

The problem can be solved by synchronizing the caches in the
appropriate places.  The relevant places in the Scheme system have
been identified, and use two machine-dependent macros to
synchronize both caches or flush the instruction cache.

=> FLUSH_I_CACHE is used to flush the portion of the I-cache that
Scheme code addresses may be in, or alternatively, to guarantee that
the I-cache contains only valid data.  It may flush/synchronize the
entire I-cache instead, if it is easier.  It is used after garbage
collections and image loads.

=> FLUSH_I_CACHE_REGION is used to flush or synchronize a region of
the address space from the I-cache.  It is given the base address and
the number of long-words of the region of memory that has just been
modified and whose new contents must be copied into the I-cache for
correct execution.

It is used after updating an execute cache while running between
garbage collections.  It is not used during garbage collection since
FLUSH_I_CACHE will be used afterwards.

These macros need not be defined if it is not needed to flush the
cache.  A NOP version is provided by the code when they are not
defined in cmpint-md.h

Note that on some machine/OS combinations, all system calls cause a
cache flush, thus an innocuous system call (eg., a time reading call)
may be used to achieve this purpose.

Many modern machines only make their cache flushing instructions
available to the operating system (they are priviledged instructions),
and some operating systems provide no system calls to perform this
task.  In the absence of information on the structure and
characteristics of the cache (the information could be used to write
flushing routines), the Scheme compiler and system may have to be
changed in order to run on such machines.  Here is a set of changes
that will bypass the problem, at the expense of some functionality and
perhaps performance:

- Change the entry code for closures and execute caches.

The code in execute caches can be changed from

	jump	target

to

	jsr	fixed-utility-routine
	target address

where fixed-utility-routine extracts target address from the return
address and invokes it.  The same change can be made to the closure
entry code.

This solves the problem of assignment to variables with execute
caches.

This change can be done quite easily since the format of closures and
execute caches is already machine dependent, and all the accessors,
constructors, and mutators have been abstracted into macros or can
be easily rewritten in the compiler.

- Change the storage management scheme to accomodate a code area that
is never garbage collected so that code, once placed there, never
moves.

This would constitue a major change to the system.  The main problem
that this change would present is the following:

Closures are data structures created and dropped on the fly, thus they
cannot be allocated from a region of memory that is never reclaimed.
Thus closures would have to be allocated from data space, and could no
longer contain instructions.  This implies that the format of entry
points would have to change, since the relevant information would no
longer consist of a single address, but two, ie.  the address of the
code in code space and the address of the data in data space.  This
would imply many changes to the compiler for there are implicit
assumptions throughout that compiled entry points take no space
besides the space taken by the code.  In particular, simple closures
would disappear, and multi-closures would have to be redesigned.

	Implementation registers and utilities

The C runtime support maintains some state variables that Scheme code
may need to access.  In order to make these variables easily
accessible to both languages, all these variables are collected into a
contiguous vector (the register block) accesible by both.  The C
variable "Registers" holds the address of this vector, and while
compiled Scheme code is being executed, a processor register also
holds the address of the vector.  Among other data, the register block
contains the memory version of MemTop, the interpreter's expression
and environment registers, the interrupt mask and pending interrupt
words.

In addition, the compiler occasionally needs static memory locations
into which it can spill the values contained in processor registers.
Rather than using another register to hold the address of the spill
locations, these are allocated on the same vector as the register
block, and the register that holds the address of the register block
can be used to access the spill locations as well.

Compiled code also needs to invoke assembly language and C utilities
to perform certain tasks that would take too much space to code
in-line.  Rather than choosing fixed addresses for these routines, or
having to update them every time a piece of code is loaded or dumped,
a register is reserved to hold the address of one of them, and the
distance between them is pre-determined, so that compiled code can
invoke any of them by adding an offset to the value in the register
and jumping there.

On processors with few registers (eg. 68k), it would be wasteful to
reserve two registers in this fashion.  Both registers are therefore
merged.  Yet another section of the register block array is reserved
for utility procedures, and appropriate jump instructions are placed
there so that compiled code can invoke the utilities by jumping into
the register block array.

The following macros define the sizes of the various areas of the
array.  None of them need to be defined except to override the
default.  The default assumes that there are enough processor
registers that another one can be reserved to point to the utility
handles.

=> COMPILER_REGBLOCK_N_FIXED is the size of the register block
section of the array.  It must accomodate at least as many locations
as the interpreter expects to have.

=> COMPILER_REGBLOCK_N_TEMPS is the number of spill locations.

=> COMPILER_TEMP_SIZE is the size (in long words) of the contents of a
floating point register if different from a double.  For example, an
MC68881 saves registers in 96 bit (3 longword) blocks.  The default is
fine for most machines.

=> COMPILER_REGBLOCK_EXTRA_SIZE is the additional size (in longwords)
to be reserved for utility handles.  It is typically defined the
following way as (COMPILER_REGBLOCK_N_HOOKS * COMPILER_HOOK_SIZE).

=> COMPILER_REGBLOCK_N_HOOKS is the maximum number of utility handles.

=> COMPILER_HOOK_SIZE is the size in longwords of a utility handle (an
absolute jump instruction).

=> Macro ASM_RESET_HOOK can be used to initialize the register block
array.  It is invoked at boot time.

	Miscellany:

Macro IN_CMPINT_C, defined in cmpint.c, can be used to conditionally
include code (extern procedures) needed by the port.  It is only
defined when cmpint-md.h is included by cmpint.c .

=> Macro COMPILER_PROCESSOR_TYPE identifies the processor type.  It
should be unique for each kind of processor.
